EOTO Reaction: Civil Rights Era - Positives and Negatives

    The Civil Rights Movement has become a defining era in U.S history. During this time, there was both incredible progress made, but a sea of struggle as well. Today, I'd like to tell you about some of the progress and challenges that was taught by students.

    I'd first like to talk about the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 - 1956 , which was sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat. The boycott mobilized African Americans on an unparalleled scale. Buses were replaced with over 200 person carpool networks, and as a result, the city of Montgomery eventually lost about 70% of its transportation revenue. Ultimately, the Supreme Court validated the ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional, which also reinforce the precedent set by Brown v. Board of Education. 

    The Freedom Rides of 1961 challenged Jim Crow laws by testing Boynton v. Virginia. During this period, multiracial riders would deliberately violate Jim crows laws while enduring violence from white communities. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a major part in this by providing rides that ended with mandated desegregation.

    Despite this progress and success, there was also a fair amount of challenge during the movement. ON September 15th, 1963, the 16th Street Baptist church bombing occurred. This event was a horrific reminder of the violence activists faced. The attack by the Ku Klux Klan unfortunately killed four young girls and injured 23 others. This church was a hub for civil rights leaders, and became a symbol for the ongoing struggle against racial hatred.

    Furthermore, the murders of three civil rights workers - James Chaney, Michael Schwerner, and Andrew Goodman - in 1964 further illustrated the risks and struggles of activism. These three men were active in organizing boycotts and increasing black voter registration. Unfortunately, it seems this made them a target for the KKK. They were first pronounced missing on June 21, 1964 near Philadelphia. Sadly, their bodies were found on August 4th after months of FBI investigation and searches.

    The discovery of their bodies drew significant media attention to the civil rights movement, and further highlighted the violence that activist in the South faced. As a result of this attention, President Lyndon B. Johnson was pushed for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 

 

Mock Trial: Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

    The Supreme Court case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke marked a significant turning point in the debate over affirmative action policies in higher education. This case was centered around issues that dealt with racial equality and access to adequate education for everyone.

    This case began with Allan Bakke, a 35-year-old white male student, who'd applied twice for admission into the University of California Medical School at Davis.  As part of its Affirmative Action Program, the University reserved 16 spots in each entering class of 100 for qualified minority applicants. This program was aimed at addressing historical underrepresentation of racial minorities in the medical field. 

    Bakke argued that both his test scores and College GPA exceeded the qualification of any of the minority students that had been admitted during the two years Bakke was rejected. Bakke conceded that not only was he excluded from admissions solely based on race, but continued to argue that his rights under the Equal Protection Clause had been violated by the University of California Medical School. 

    The central issue in this case was whether UC Davis' affirmative action policy violated the Equal Protection clause and the Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. As we know, "The 14th Amendment states, 'No state shall... deny to any person with its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.'" Bakke's legal team argued that the affirmative action program was unconstitutional, claiming reverse discrimination - violation of the idea that an individual's race should not be considered under any circumstance. 

    The University of California defended its affirmative action program by emphasizing the need to counteract the system racism that had continued to disadvantage minorities for over a century. UC Davis' claimed, "The Fourteenth Amendment states that people should be treated equally, not the same," This allows room for policies that can provide opportunities to minority applicants. Furthermore, the program was not exclusive to racial minorities; White applicants who faced educational or economic disadvantages were considered as well.

    In the end, no side specifically won the case. The Supreme Court struck down the University's use of racial quotas, deeming them unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. Justice Lewis Powell reasoned that a quota system in which excluded individuals solely based on race constituted racial discrimination, which the 14th Amendment prohibits.

    Nevertheless, the Court also recognized the legitimacy of the affirmative action program, which was meant to foster a diverse community, and address past discrimination.  

 

 

In the Heat of the Night Analysis

     In the Heat of the Night explores themes of racial tension, as well as societal change during the 1960s. The audience can see this change through the evolving relationship between Detective Virgil Tibbs and Police Chief Bill Gillespie. In the Heat is set in a very racially divided town of Sparta, Mississippi. Throughout the movie, we see these two relationships start with hostility and prejudice. As time moves on, their relationships transforms into a mutual respect for each other, which some could say is a mirror into the societal shifts of the Civil Rights era.

    In the beginning, we see that Gillespie's attitude towards Tibbs reflects negative racial biases of the South during this time. Virgil Tibbs, a detective from Philadelphia, is met with bitterness and antagonism when a police officer, Sam Woods, wrangles accuses and arrests Tibbs. Gillespie embodies the rooted racism of the surrounding community as he assumes that Tibbs is a ruthless murderer and criminal rather than someone with a professional standing. Only when Tibbs reveals his profession is Gillespie's negative assumptions of Tibbs' challenged.

    As the investigation continues, Gillespie's perception of Tibbs begin to change from a racial stereotype to someone who is a proficient, determined detective. Their progressive relationship reflects the changes made through scout during the late 20th century.

    Tibbs symbolizes the push for equality and justice, while Gillespie represents the side of society that has acknowledged this newly integrated reality; Although there is still a major setting of violence, some communities are trying to slowly adjust to this new world. This film illustrates that while change is difficult, it is possible to achieve a mutual respect for someone, no matter their race or background.

 

 

The Reconstruction Era

    The Reconstruction Era was a reframing period in American history when America sought to rebuild and redefine itself after the Civil War. This era marked a significant transition towards civil rights and equality for African American citizens.

    During the reconstruction, there was significant political progress made by African American me. Black men were elected into public office, including seats in the U.S Senate. The Civil War itself had paved the way for this, with 180,000 formerly enslaved men going the Union army. It was because of African American men that there was a secured chance in obtaining the Union's victory as well as abolishing slavery.

    President Abraham Lincoln sought out a future for Black men to have fundamental rights. Unfortunately, his assassination by John Wilkes Booth abruptly ended his efforts. Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's successor, was less supportive of racial equality. Under his administration, Black Codes were eventually implemented throughout the U.S. Black Codes began to restrict the freedoms and rights of African Americans, especially in the South.

    Despite further legal advancement throughout time, resistance in the South remained. Many white Southerners actively opposed Reconstruction efforts. Violence against Black Americans escalated,  particularly during critical moments like the 1968 presidential election; During this time, African American voters were attacked and some were even killed for their participation in voting. In spit e of that, half a million Black men continued to cast their votes for Ulysses S. Grant, who won the election due to the votes of the Black community.

    The Reconstruction Era contained both progress and struggle. While there was intense backlash from white communities who were unwilling to accept a racially integrated society, there were still significant changes during this period like the opportunities for political representation that opened for African American citizens.
 

 

 

 

 

Brown v. Board of Education Reaction Post

    The Brown v. The Board of Education was a case where four states including Kansas contained state wise laws in which schools must be "Separate but Equal." Brown challenges the concept of "Separate but Equal," claiming that it is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

    The arguments made by Brown's side emphasized the transformative power of integration. Evidence is presented that integration allows students to feel accepted in an environment, continues to improve academic outcomes, and leads to better future opportunities for all students. Alyson Sojak claims, " African Americans should not receive any less of an education because of the facilities they are forced to be in." Not only this, but there has been apparent evidence that integration has reduced dropout rates among African American students, leading to more students finishing their degrees and becoming valued in society. Kaitlyn Parker announces, "Children in integrated schools have higher incomes as adults, better health outcomes and lower incarceration rates."

    However the Board of Education offers a nuanced perspective, focusing on the logistical and societal challenges that come with a forced integration. They argued that most funding for schools come around surrounded white communities who continue to pay taxes in order to keep their schools up to code. Justin Surratt goes on to say, " In order for Blacks to have 'Equal facilities,' they need to pull their weight and pay their fair share of tax money in order to build their schools up just as their white counterparts have." The reliance on Black Wall Street is used as an example of African American communities thriving without integration, and also serves as an illustration of economic growth throughout Black homes.

    The Board also highlights valid concerns about the potential backlash and violence that would most likely come with a forced integration. Camerin Williams brings up an important piece of information,  stating that "The idea that negro students would be prepared to thrive in the white education system is simply unrealistic." Integration could create a hostile environment that Black students may not be ready to adapt to. Before we can think about educational reform, we need to focus on more broader societal change beforehand. 

    Brown v. The Board of Education was not only a legal battle, but a moral one.  While the challenges of integration was ver apparent, there was still hope and a vision for the future where every child, regardless of the color of their skin, could have equal opportunities. 
 

 

 

EOTO #2: Lynchings of 19th and 20th century

    Lynchings during the 19th and 20th century represented one of the darkest chapters f racial violence in American history. During this horrific era, lynchings had become a tool to maintain white supremacy by instilling terror through black communities. 

    A lynching was a public killing of an individual who had not undergone due process. Executions were usually carried out by lawless mobs; while police observed these tragedies take place, they would not intervene. The lack of law enforcement allowed these brutal acts to go unchecked. According to the NAACP, there were an estimate of 4,743 lynchings that occurred in the U.s from 1882 to 1968, 72% of the lynchings being targeted towards Africans Americans. Others who were lynched included immigrants from Mexico, China, and other countries, as well as the white people who did not participate in lynching, or tried to help African Americans from being lynched. Common claims and accusations used against Black people were murder, arson, robbery; Black men were typically accused of sexually assaulting white women. 

    Lynchings gained momentum during and after the Reconstruction era as African Americans began to register to vote, were establishing business and began running for public office. "Many whites - landowners and poor whites - felt threatened by this risk in black prominence. Foremost on their minds was the fear of sex between races." Mob kills would carry out extreme brutality towards African Americans such as mutilation, torture, desecration - all of which were advertised in the newspapers and became public spectacles where large crowds of white families would gather and celebrate. 

    As the lynchings continued on, body parts - including genitalia - were sometimes distributed to spectators or put on public display.

Two infamous lynchings - the murder of Emmett Till and William Brown - both illustrate the horrendous lengths lynchers would go through to maintain their racial order.

    First, we begin with the trick case of Emmett Till, a 14 year old African American teenage boy from Chicago. IN 1955, Till would be accused of whistling at a white female store clerk while visiting relatives Money, Mississippi. Days later, the clerk's husband as well as his relative kidnaps Till in the middle of the night, brutally murdering him and throwing his body into the Tallahatchie River with a heavy cotton gin face tied around his neck. "Till's death symbolized for many African Americans the inherent racism and disparity of justice they continued to face in the aftermath of World War II.

    The lynching of William Brown, otherwise known as the Omaha Courthouse Lynching, remains a demonstrations of the Red Summer violence. Brown, a 40 year old African American man was accused of raping a 19 year old white woman. When police arrived at his residence to detain him, a mob of 250 white men and women arrived trying to apprehend him themselves, but failed in the process. While Omaha's mayor tried to deter the white community from rioting, the mob ultimately stormed the courthouse. Soon after, the mob proceeded to rip off Brown's clothing, hang him to a lamppost, and began to brutally shoot his dead body multiple times. Brown's lifeless body was then tied to the back of a police car dragged to a downtown intersection, and sadly burned in front of a crowd. 

    After all of this, rioters and the white community continued to take photos with Brown's body in celebration of his lynching. Souvenirs, including pieces of the rope used to hang him, were later sold to the public. The Omaha Courthouse lynching counties to be a part of history that represents the wave of racial and labor violence that swept the U.S during the Red Summer of 1919. 

 

 

 

 

EOTO Reaction Post: Positives and Negatives of the Reconstruction Era

     As I listened to the two groups present their EOTOs, I gained valuable insights into the Reconstruction Era's successes and setbacks. Today, I'd like to share some of what I learned. 

     To start, I learned about the Freedmen's Bureau from Alyson Sojak. This agency was established in 1865, just two months before Confederate Leader Robert E. Lee surrendered to the Union. Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau to support former enslaved people and impoverished whites the South after the Civil War. 

    The Bureau provided communities with essential resources, including food, housing, and medical assistance, as well as helping to establish schools for Black communities and provide legal aid. Among the colleges they helped build were Howard University, Fisk University, and many more. the Bureau operated across 11 different districts which were former rebel and border states. Furthermore, all offices of the Bureau were located in major cities.

    I also learned about the Forty Acres and a Mule promise, as presented by Kaitlyn Parker. This was a promise and commitment made in 1865 to redistribute land to freed Black families, with some families also receiving an army mule. The initiative began with Field Order Number Fifteen.  

    Quoting Ms. Parker, "Four hundred thousand acres which would taken from wealthier families and redistributed into sections of forty acres which would be given to pas slave families to give them a... fresh start." After months of this order being in place, an estimated 40,000 freed people were settled on this redistributed land, which had been seized from wealthy Confederate landowners. However, this promise soon dissolved. Although the land was initially redistributed, President Andrew Johnson ordered its return to the original owners shorty after, marking a significant setback in the Reconstruction era. 

     There were many challenges during reconstruction as well. For instance, Just Surratt discusses the Ku Klux Klan - otherwise known as the KKK - and the terror they inflicted. the Klan aimed to dismantle and reverse the new way of life that was established by the Reconstruction era. In order to achieve this, they went after black symbols such as black schools, churches, black owned business, and much more. During their reign, roughly 10% of Black legislators faced violence, and seven were tragically killed. By 1870, the Klan had expanded across nearly all Southern states. While many members were poor white Southerners, others were lawyers, doctors, judges, and even local law enforcement. Even when not directly involved, many law enforcement officers chose to ignore Klan activity, allowing the violence to persist unchecked. This era was marked by both progress and profound struggles, as highlighted through these presentations.